Bluetooth

Bluetooth is an industrial specification for wireless personal area networks (PANs). Bluetooth provides a way to connect and exchange information between devices such as mobile phones, laptops, personal computers, printers, GPS receivers, digital cameras, and video game consoles over a secure, globally unlicensed short-range radio frequency. The Bluetooth specifications are developed and licensed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group.

Uses

Bluetooth is a standard and communications protocol primarily designed for low power consumption, with a short range (power-class-dependent: 1 meter, 10 meters, 100 meters) based on low-cost transceiver microchips in each device.^[1]

Bluetooth enables these devices to communicate with each other when they are in range. The devices use a radio communications system, so they do not have to be in line of sight of each other, and can even be in other rooms, as long as the received transmission is powerful enough.

In most cases the effective range of class 2 devices is extended if they connect to a class 1 transceiver, compared to pure class 2 network. This is accomplished by the higher sensitivity and transmission power of Class 1 devices.




Bluetooth profiles

In order to use Bluetooth, a device must be compatible with certain Bluetooth profiles. These define the possible applications and uses of the technology.

List of Apllications

More prevalent applications of Bluetooth include:

• Wireless control of and communication between a mobile phone and a hands-free headset. This was one of the earliest applications to become popular.
• Wireless networking between PCs in a confined space and where little bandwidth is required.
• Wireless communications with PC input and output devices, the most common being the mouse, keyboard and printer.
• Transfer of files between devices with OBEX.
• Transfer of contact details, calendar appointments, and reminders between devices with OBEX.
• Replacement of traditional wired serial communications in test equipment, GPS receivers, medical equipment, bar code scanners, and traffic control devices.
• For controls where infrared was traditionally used.
• Sending small advertisements from Bluetooth enabled advertising hoardings to other, discoverable, Bluetooth devices.
• Two seventh-generation game consoles, Nintendo's Wii^[2] and Sony's PlayStation 3 use Bluetooth for their respective wireless controllers.
• Dial-up internet access on personal computer or PDA using a data-capable mobile phone as a modem.

Bluetooth vs. Wi-Fi in networking

Bluetooth and Wi-Fi have slightly different applications in today's offices, homes, and on the move: setting up networks, printing, or transferring presentations and files from PDAs to computers. Both are versions of unlicensed spread spectrum technology.

Bluetooth differs from Wi-Fi in that the latter provides higher throughput and covers greater distances, but requires more expensive hardware and higher power consumption. They use the same frequency range, but employ different modulation techniques. While Bluetooth is a replacement for a variety of applications, Wi-Fi is a replacement only for local area network access. Bluetooth can be thought of as wireless USB^{[citation needed]}, whereas Wi-Fi is wireless Ethernet^{[citation needed]}, both operating at much lower bandwidth^{[citation needed]} than cable networking systems. However, this analogy is not entirely accurate since any Bluetooth device can, in theory, host any other Bluetooth device—something that is not universal to USB devices, therefore it would resemble more a wireless FireWire.

Bluetooth

Bluetooth exists in many products, such as phones, printers, modems and headsets. The technology is useful when transferring information between two or more devices that are near each other in low-bandwidth situations. Bluetooth is commonly used to transfer sound data with phones (i.e. with a Bluetooth headset) or byte data with hand-held computers (transferring files).

Bluetooth simplifies the discovery and setup of services between devices. Bluetooth devices advertise all of the services they provide. This makes using services easier because there is no longer a need to setup network addresses or permissions as in many other networks.

Wi-Fi

Wi-Fi is more like a traditional Ethernet network, and requires configuration to set up shared resources, transmit files, and to set up audio links (for example, headsets and hands-free devices). It uses the same radio frequencies as Bluetooth, but with higher power resulting in a stronger connection. Wi-Fi is sometimes called "wireless Ethernet." This description is accurate as it also provides an indication of its relative strengths and weaknesses. Wi-Fi requires more setup, but is better suited for operating full-scale networks because it enables a faster connection, better range from the base station, and better security than Bluetooth.

Computer requirements

A personal computer must have a Bluetooth adapter in order to be able to communicate with other Bluetooth devices (such as mobile phones, mice and keyboards). While some desktop computers and most recent laptops come with a built-in Bluetooth adapter, others will require an external one in the form of a dongle.

Unlike its predecessor, IrDA, which requires a separate adapter for each device, Bluetooth allows multiple devices to communicate with a computer over a single adapter.

Operating system support

Apple has supported Bluetooth since Mac OS X v10.2 released in 2002.^[3]

For Microsoft platforms, Windows XP Service Pack 2 and later releases have native support for Bluetooth. Previous versions required users to install their Bluetooth adapter's own drivers, which were not directly supported by Microsoft.^[4] Microsoft's own Bluetooth dongles (packaged with their Bluetooth computer devices) have no external drivers and thus require at least Windows XP Service Pack 2.

Linux provides two Bluetooth stacks, with the BlueZ ^[5] stack included with most Linux kernels. It was originally developed by Qualcomm and Affix. BlueZ supports all core Bluetooth protocols and layers.

NetBSD features Bluetooth support since its 4.0 release. Its Bluetooth stack has been ported to FreeBSD and OpenBSD as well.

Specifications and features

The Bluetooth specification was developed in 1994 by Jaap Haartsen and Sven Mattisson, who were working for Ericsson Mobile Platforms in Lund, Sweden.^[6] The specification is based on frequency-hopping spread spectrum technology.

The specifications were formalized by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), organised by Mohd Syarifuddin. The SIG was formally announced on May 20, 1998. Today it has a membership over 7000 companies worldwide. It was established by Ericsson, Sony Ericsson, IBM, Intel, Toshiba, and Nokia, and later joined by many other companies.

Bluetooth 1.0 and 1.0B

Versions 1.0 and 1.0B had many problems, and manufacturers had difficulty making their products interoperable. Versions 1.0 and 1.0B also included mandatory Bluetooth hardware device address (BD_ADDR) transmission in the Connecting process (rendering anonymity impossible at the protocol level), which was a major setback for certain services planned for use in Bluetooth environments.

Bluetooth 1.1

• Ratified as IEEE Standard 802.15.1-2002.
• Many errors found in the 1.0B specifications were fixed.
• Added support for non-encrypted channels.
• Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI).

Bluetooth 1.2

This version is backward-compatible with 1.1 and the major enhancements include the following:

• Faster Connection and Discovery
• Adaptive frequency-hopping spread spectrum (AFH), which improves resistance to radio frequency interference by avoiding the use of crowded frequencies in the hopping sequence.
• Higher transmission speeds in practice, up to 721 kbit/s, as in 1.1.
• Extended Synchronous Connections (eSCO), which improve voice quality of audio links by allowing retransmissions of corrupted packets.
• Host Controller Interface (HCI) support for three-wire UART.
• Ratified as IEEE Standard 802.15.1-2005.

Bluetooth 2.0

This version, specified on November 10, 2004, is backward-compatible with 1.1. The main enhancement is the introduction of an Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) of 3.0 Mbit/s. This has the following effects:^[7]

• Three times faster transmission speed—up to 10 times in certain cases (up to 2.1 Mbit/s).
• Lower power consumption through a reduced duty cycle.
• Simplification of multi-link scenarios due to more available bandwidth.

The practical data transfer rate is 2.1 megabits per second and the basic signalling rate is about 3 megabits per second.^[8] The "Bluetooth 2.0 + EDR" specification given at the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) includes EDR and there is no specification "Bluetooth 2.0" as used by many vendors. The HTC TyTN pocket PC phone, shows "Bluetooth 2.0 without EDR" on its data sheet.^[9] In many cases it is not clear whether a product claiming to support "Bluetooth 2.0" actually supports the EDR higher transfer rate.

Bluetooth 2.1

Bluetooth Core Specification Version 2.1 is fully backward-compatible with 1.1, and was adopted by the Bluetooth SIG on July 26, 2007.^[7] This specification includes the following features:

• Extended inquiry response: provides more information during the inquiry procedure to allow better filtering of devices before connection. This information includes the name of the device, a list of services the device supports, as well as other information like the time of day, and pairing information.

• Sniff subrating: reduces the power consumption when devices are in the sniff low-power mode, especially on links with asymmetric data flows. Human interface devices (HID) are expected to benefit the most, with mouse and keyboard devices increasing the battery life by a factor of 3 to 10. It let devices decide how long they will wait before sending keepalive messages to one another. Previous Bluetooth implementations featured keep alive message frequencies of up to several times per second. In contrast, the 2.1 specification allows pairs of devices to negotiate this value between them to as infrequently as once every 5 or 10 seconds.

• Encryption Pause Resume: enables an encryption key to be refreshed, enabling much stronger encryption for connections that stay up for longer than 23.3 hours (one Bluetooth day).

• Secure Simple Pairing: radically improves the pairing experience for Bluetooth devices, while increasing the use and strength of security. It is expected that this feature will significantly increase the use of Bluetooth.^[10]

NFC cooperation: automatic creation of secure Bluetooth connections when NFC radio interface is also available. For example, a headset should be paired with a Bluetooth 2.1 phone including NFC just by bringing the two devices close to each other (a few centimeters). Another example is automatic uploading of photos from a mobile phone or camera to a digital picture frame just by bringing the phone or camera close to the frame.

Future of Bluetooth

• Broadcast Channel: enables Bluetooth information points. This will drive the adoption of Bluetooth into mobile phones, and enable advertising models based around users pulling information from the information points, and not based around the object push model that is used in a limited way today.

• Topology Management: enables the automatic configuration of the piconet topologies especially in scatternet situations that are becoming more common today. This should all be invisible to the users of the technology, while also making the technology just work.

• Alternate MAC PHY: enables the use of alternative MAC and PHY's for transporting Bluetooth profile data. The Bluetooth Radio will still be used for device discovery, initial connection and profile configuration, however when lots of data needs to be sent, the high speed alternate MAC PHY's will be used to transport the data. This means that the proven low power connection models of Bluetooth are used when the system is idle, and the low power per bit radios are used when lots of data needs to be sent.

• QoS improvements: enable audio and video data to be transmitted at a higher quality, especially when best effort traffic is being transmitted in the same piconet.

High-speed Bluetooth

On 28 March 2006, the Bluetooth Special Interest Group announced its selection of the WiMedia Alliance Multi-Band Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (MB-OFDM) version of UWB for integration with current Bluetooth wireless technology.

UWB integration will create a version of Bluetooth wireless technology with a high-speed/high-data-rate option. This new version of Bluetooth technology will meet the high-speed demands of synchronizing and transferring large amounts of data, as well as enabling high-quality video and audio applications for portable devices, multi-media projectors and television sets, and wireless VOIP.

At the same time, Bluetooth technology will continue catering to the needs of very low power applications such as mice, keyboards, and mono headsets, enabling devices to select the most appropriate physical radio for the application requirements, thereby offering the best of both worlds.

Bluetooth 3.0

The next version of Bluetooth after v2.1, code-named Seattle (the version number of which is TBD) has many of the same features, but is most notable for plans to adopt ultra-wideband (UWB) radio technology. This will allow Bluetooth use over UWB radio, enabling very fast data transfers of up to 480 Mbit/s, while building on the very low-power idle modes of Bluetooth.

Ultra Low Power Bluetooth

On June 12, 2007, Nokia and Bluetooth SIG announced that Wibree will be a part of the Bluetooth specification as an ultra low power Bluetooth technology.^[13] Expected use cases include watches displaying Caller ID information, sports sensors monitoring your heart rate during exercise, as well as medical devices. The Medical Devices Working Group is also creating a medical devices profile and associated protocols to enable this market.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluetooth

Read More..

Cisco Router Configuration Commands

Requirement	Cisco Command
Set a console password to cisco	Router(config)#line con 0 Router(config-line)#login Router(config-line)#password cisco
Set a telnet password	Router(config)#line vty 0 4 Router(config-line)#login Router(config-line)#password cisco
Stop console timing out	Router(config)#line con 0 Router(config-line)#exec-timeout 0 0
Set the enable password to cisco	Router(config)#enable password cisco
Set the enable secret password to peter. This password overrides the enable password and is encypted within the config file	Router(config)#enable secret peter
Enable an interface	Router(config-if)#no shutdown
To disable an interface	Router(config-if)#shutdown
Set the clock rate for a router with a DCE cable to 64K	Router(config-if)clock rate 64000
Set a logical bandwidth assignment of 64K to the serial interface	Router(config-if)bandwidth 64 Note that the zeroes are not missing
To add an IP address to a interface	Router(config-if)#ip addr 10.1.1.1 255.255.255.0
To enable RIP on all 172.16.x.y interfaces	Router(config)#router rip Router(config-router)#network 172.16.0.0
Disable RIP	Router(config)#no router rip
To enable IRGP with a AS of 200, to all interfaces	Router(config)#router igrp 200 Router(config-router)#network 172.16.0.0
Disable IGRP	Router(config)#no router igrp 200
Static route the remote network is 172.16.1.0, with a mask of 255.255.255.0, the next hop is 172.16.2.1, at a cost of 5 hops	Router(config)#ip route 172.16.1.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.2.1 5
Disable CDP for the whole router	Router(config)#no cdp run
Enable CDP for he whole router	Router(config)#cdp run
Disable CDP on an interface	Router(config-if)#no cdp enable

Sumber : http://tomax7.com/index.html

Cisco Router Show Commands

Requirement	Cisco Command
View version information	show version
View current configuration (DRAM)	show running-config
View startup configuration (NVRAM)	show startup-config
Show IOS file and flash space	show flash
Shows all logs that the router has in its memory	show log
View the interface status of interface e0	show interface e0
Overview all interfaces on the router	show ip interfaces brief
View type of serial cable on s0	show controllers 0 (note the space between the ’s’ and the ‘0′)
Display a summary of connected cdp devices	show cdp neighbor
Display detailed information on all devices	show cdp entry *
Display current routing protocols	show ip protocols
Display IP routing table	show ip route
Display access lists, this includes the number of displayed matches	show access-lists
Check the router can see the ISDN switch	show isdn status
Check a Frame Relay PVC connections	show frame-relay pvc
show lmi traffic stats	show frame-relay lmi
Display the frame inverse ARP table	show frame-relay map

Cisco Router Basic Operations

Requirement	Cisco Command
Enable	Enter privileged mode
Return to user mode from privileged	disable
Exit Router	Logout or exit or quit
Recall last command	up arrow or
Recall next command	down arrow or
Suspend or abort	and and 6 then x
Refresh screen output
Compleat Command	TAB

Cisco Router Copy Commands

Requirement	Cisco Command
Save the current configuration from DRAM to NVRAM	copy running-config startup-config
Merge NVRAM configuration to DRAM	copy startup-config running-config
Copy DRAM configuration to a TFTP server	copy runing-config tftp
Merge TFTP configuration with current router configuration held in DRAM	copy tftp runing-config
Backup the IOS onto a TFTP server	copy flash tftp
Upgrade the router IOS from a TFTP server	copy tftp flash

Cisco Router Debug Commands

Requirement	Cisco Command
Enable debug for RIP	debug ip rip
Enable summary IGRP debug information	debug ip igrp events
Enable detailed IGRP debug information	debug ip igrp transactions
Debug IPX RIP	debug ipx routing activity
Debug IPX SAP	debug IPX SAP
Enable debug for CHAP or PAP	debug ppp authentication
Switch all debugging off	no debug all undebug all

Sumber : http://dedenthea.wordpress.com/2007/03/12/cisco-router-configuration-commands

Read More..

Router Lanjutan

Interior Routing Protocol

Pada awal 1980-an Internet terbatas pada ARPANET, Satnet (perluasan ARPANET yang menggunakan satelit), dan beberapa jaringan lokal yang terhubung lewat gateway. Dalam perkembangannya, Internet memerlukan struktur yang bersifat hirarkis untuk mengantisipasi jaringan yang telah menjadi besar. Internet kemudian dipecah menjadi beberapa autonomous system (AS) dan saat ini Internet terdiri dari ribuan AS. Setiap AS memiliki mekanisme pertukaran dan pengumpulan informasi routing sendiri.


Protokol yang digunakan untuk bertukar informasi routing dalam AS digolongkan sebagai interior routing protocol (IRP). Hasil pengumpulan informasi routing ini kemudian disampaikan kepada AS lain dalam bentuk reachability information. Reachability information yang dikeluarkan oleh sebuah AS berisi informasi mengenai jaringan-jaringan yang dapat dicapai melalui AS tersebut dan menjadi indikator terhubungnya AS ke Internet. Penyampaian reachability information antar-AS dilakukan menggunakan protokol yang digolongkan sebagai exterior routing protocol (ERP).

IRP yang dijadikan standar di Internet sampai saat ini adalah Routing Information Protocol (RIP) dan Open Shortest Path First (OSPF). Di samping kedua protokol ini terdapat juga protokol routing yang bersifat proprietary tetapi banyak digunakan di Internet, yaitu Internet Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) dari Cisco System. Protokol IGRP kemudian diperluas menjadi Extended IGRP (EIGRP). Semua protokol routing di atas menggunakan metrik sebagai dasar untuk menentukan jalur terbaik yang dapat ditempuh oleh datagram. Metrik diasosiasikan dengan “biaya” yang terdapat pada setiap link, yang dapat berupa throughput (kecepatan data), delay, biaya sambungan, dan keandalan link.

I. Routing Information Protocol

RIP (akronim, dibaca sebagai rip) termasuk dalam protokol distance-vector, sebuah protokol yang sangat sederhana. Protokol distance-vector sering juga disebut protokol Bellman-Ford, karena berasal dari algoritma perhitungan jarak terpendek oleh R.E. Bellman, dan dideskripsikan dalam bentuk algoritma-terdistribusi pertama kali oleh Ford dan Fulkerson.

Setiap router dengan protokol distance-vector ketika pertama kali dijalankan hanya mengetahui cara routing ke dirinya sendiri (informasi lokal) dan tidak mengetahui topologi jaringan tempatnya berada. Router kemudia mengirimkan informasi lokal tersebut dalam bentuk distance-vector ke semua link yang terhubung langsung dengannya. Router yang menerima informasi routing menghitung distance-vector, menambahkan distance-vector dengan metrik link tempat informasi tersebut diterima, dan memasukkannya ke dalam entri forwarding table jika dianggap merupakan jalur terbaik. Informasi routing setelah penambahan metrik kemudian dikirim lagi ke seluruh antarmuka router, dan ini dilakukan setiap selang waktu tertentu. Demikian seterusnya sehingga seluruh router di jaringan mengetahui topologi jaringan tersebut.

Protokol distance-vector memiliki kelemahan yang dapat terlihat apabila dalam jaringan ada link yang terputus. Dua kemungkinan kegagalan yang mungkin terjadi adalah efek bouncing dan menghitung-sampai-tak-hingga (counting to infinity). Efek bouncing dapat terjadi pada jaringan yang menggunakan metrik yang berbeda pada minimal sebuah link. Link yang putus dapat menyebabkan routing loop, sehingga datagram yang melewati link tertentu hanya berputar-putar di antara dua router (bouncing) sampai umur (time to live) datagram tersebut habis.

Menghitung-sampai-tak-hingga terjadi karena router terlambat menginformasikan bahwa suatu link terputus. Keterlambatan ini menyebabkan router harus mengirim dan menerima distance-vector serta menghitung metrik sampai batas maksimum metrik distance-vector tercapai. Link tersebut dinyatakan putus setelah distance-vector mencapai batas maksimum metrik. Pada saat menghitung metrik ini juga terjadi routing loop, bahkan untuk waktu yang lebih lama daripada apabila terjadi efek bouncing..

RIP tidak mengadopsi protokol distance-vector begitu saja, melainkan dengan melakukan beberapa penambahan pada algoritmanya agar routing loop yang terjadi dapat diminimalkan. Split horizon digunakan RIP untuk meminimalkan efek bouncing. Prinsip yang digunakan split horizon sederhana: jika node A menyampaikan datagram ke tujuan X melalui node B, maka bagi B tidak masuk akal untuk mencapai tujuan X melalui A. Jadi, A tidak perlu memberitahu B bahwa X dapat dicapai B melalui A.

Untuk mencegah kasus menghitung-sampai-tak-hingga, RIP menggunakan metode Triggered Update. RIP memiliki timer untuk mengetahui kapan router harus kembali memberikan informasi routing. Jika terjadi perubahan pada jaringan, sementara timer belum habis, router tetap harus mengirimkan informasi routing karena dipicu oleh perubahan tersebut (triggered update). Dengan demikian, router-router di jaringan dapat dengan cepat mengetahui perubahan yang terjadi dan meminimalkan kemungkinan routing loop terjadi.

RIP yang didefinisikan dalam RFC-1058 menggunakan metrik antara 1 dan 15, sedangkan 16 dianggap sebagai tak-hingga. Route dengan distance-vector 16 tidak dimasukkan ke dalam forwarding table. Batas metrik 16 ini mencegah waktu menghitung-sampai-tak-hingga yang terlalu lama. Paket-paket RIP secara normal dikirimkan setiap 30 detik atau lebih cepat jika terdapat triggered updates. Jika dalam 180 detik sebuah route tidak diperbarui, router menghapus entri route tersebut dari forwarding table. RIP tidak memiliki informasi tentang subnet setiap route. Router harus menganggap setiap route yang diterima memiliki subnet yang sama dengan subnet pada router itu. Dengan demikian, RIP tidak mendukung Variable Length Subnet Masking (VLSM).

RIP versi 2 (RIP-2 atau RIPv2) berupaya untuk menghasilkan beberapa perbaikan atas RIP, yaitu dukungan untuk VLSM, menggunakan otentikasi, memberikan informasi hop berikut (next hop), dan multicast. Penambahan informasi subnet mask pada setiap route membuat router tidak harus mengasumsikan bahwa route tersebut memiliki subnet mask yang sama dengan subnet mask yang digunakan padanya.

RIP-2 juga menggunakan otentikasi agar dapat mengetahui informasi routing mana yang dapat dipercaya. Otentikasi diperlukan pada protokol routing untuk membuat protokol tersebut menjadi lebih aman. RIP-1 tidak menggunakan otentikasi sehingga orang dapat memberikan informasi routing palsu. Informasi hop berikut pada RIP-2 digunakan oleh router untuk menginformasikan sebuah route tetapi untuk mencapai route tersebut tidak melewati router yang memberi informasi, melainkan router yang lain. Pemakaian hop berikut biasanya di perbatasan antar-AS.

RIP-1 menggunakan alamat broadcast untuk mengirimkan informasi routing. Akibatnya, paket ini diterima oleh semua host yang berada dalam subnet tersebut dan menambah beban kerja host. RIP-2 dapat mengirimkan paket menggunakan multicast pada IP 224.0.0.9 sehingga tidak semua host perlu menerima dan memproses informasi routing. Hanya router-router yang menggunakan RIP-2 yang menerima informasi routing tersebut tanpa perlu mengganggu host-host lain dalam subnet.

RIP merupakan protokol routing yang sederhana, dan ini menjadi alasan mengapa RIP paling banyak diimplementasikan dalam jaringan. Mengatur routing menggunakan RIP tidak rumit dan memberikan hasil yang cukup dapat diterima, terlebih jika jarang terjadi kegagalan link jaringan. Walaupun demikian, untuk jaringan yang besar dan kompleks, RIP mungkin tidak cukup. Dalam kondisi demikian, penghitungan routing dalam RIP sering membutuhkan waktu yang lama, dan menyebabkan terjadinya routing loop. Untuk jaringan seperti ini, sebagian besar spesialis jaringan komputer menggunakan protokol yang masuk dalam kelompok link-state

II. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

Teknologi link-state dikembangkan dalam ARPAnet untuk menghasilkan protokol yang terdistribusi yang jauh lebih baik daripada protokol distance-vector. Alih-alih saling bertukar jarak (distance) ke tujuan, setiap router dalam jaringan memiliki peta jaringan yang dapat diperbarui dengan cepat setelah setiap perubahan topologi. Peta ini digunakan untuk menghitung route yang lebih akurat daripada menggunakan protokol distance-vector. Perkembangan teknologi ini akhirnya menghasilkan protokol Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) yang dikembangkan oleh IETF untuk digunakan di Internet. Bahkan sekarang Internet Architecture Board (IAB) telah merekomendasikan OSPF sebagai pengganti RIP.

Prinsip link-state routing sangat sederhana. Sebagai pengganti menghitung route “terbaik” dengan cara terdistribusi, semua router mempunyai peta jaringan dan menghitung semua route yang terbaik dari peta ini. Peta jaringan tersebut disimpan dalam sebuah basis data dan setiap record dalam basis data tersebut menyatakan sebuah link dalam jaringan. Record-record tersebut dikirimkan oleh router yang terhubung langsung dengan masing-masing link.

Karena setiap router perlu memiliki peta jaringan yang menggambarkan kondisi terakhir topologi jaringan yang lengkap, setiap perubahan dalam jaringan harus diikuti oleh perubahan dalam basis data link-state yang terletak di setiap router. Perubahan status link yang dideteksi router akan mengubah basis data link-state router tersebut, kemudian router mengirimkan perubahan tersebut ke router-router lain.

Protokol yang digunakan untuk mengirimkan perubahan ini harus cepat dan dapat diandalkan. Ini dapat dicapai oleh protokol flooding. Dalam protokol flooding, pesan yang dikirim adalah perubahan dari basis data serta nomor urut pesan tersebut. Dengan hanya mengirimkan perubahan basis data, waktu yang diperlukan untuk pengiriman dan pemrosesan pesan tersebut lebih sedikit dibandingdengan mengirim seluruh isi basis data tersebut. Nomor urut pesan diperlukan untuk mengetahui apakah pesan yang diterima lebih baru daripada yang terdapat dalam basis data. Nomor urut ini berguna pada kasus link yang putus menjadi tersambung kembali.

Pada saat terdapat link putus dan jaringan menjadi terpisah, basis data kedua bagian jaringan tersebut menjadi berbeda. Ketika link yang putus tersebut hidup kembali, basis data di semua router harus disamakan. Basis data ini tidak akan kembali sama dengan mengirimkan satu pesan link-state saja. Proses penyamaan basis data pada router yang bertetangga disebut sebagai menghidupkan adjacency. Dua buah router bertetangga disebut sebagai adjacent bila basis data link-state keduanya telah sama. Dalam proses ini kedua router tersebut tidak saling bertukar basis data karena akan membutuhkan waktu yang lama.

Proses menghidupkan adjacency terdiri dari dua fasa.Fasa pertama, kedua router saling bertukar deskripsi basis data yang merupakan ringkasan dari basis data yang dimiliki setiap router. Setiap router kemudian membandingkan deskripsi basis data yang diterima dengan basis data yang dimilikinya. Pada fasa kedua, setiap router meminta tetangganya untuk mengirimkan record-record basis data yang berbeda, yaitu bila router tidak memiliki record tersebut, atau nomor urut record yang dimiliki lebih kecil daripada yang dikirimkan oleh deskripsi basis data. Setelah proses ini, router memperbarui beberapa record dan ini kemudian dikirimkan ke router-router lain melalui protokol flooding.

Protokol link-state lebih baik daripada protokol distance-vector disebabkan oleh beberapa hal: waktu yang diperlukan untuk konvergen lebih cepat, dan lebih penting lagi protokol ini tidak menghasilkan routing loop. Protokol ini mendukung penggunaan beberapa metrik sekaligus. Throughput, delay, biaya, dan keandalan adalah metrik-metrik yang umum digunakan dalam jaringan. Di samping itu protokol ini juga dapat menghasilkan banyak jalur ke sebuah tujuan. Misalkan router A memiliki dua buah jalur dengan metrik yang sama ke host B. Protokol dapat memasukkan kedua jalur tersebut ke dalam forwarding table sehingga router mampu membagi beban di antara kedua jalur tersebut.

Rancangan OSPF menggunakan protokol link-state dengan beberapa penambahan fungsi. Fungsi-fungsi yang ditambahkan antara lain mendukung jaringan multi-akses, seperti X.25 dan Ethernet, dan membagi jaringan yang besar mejadi beberapa area.

Telah dijelaskan di atas bahwa setiap router dalam protokol link-state perlu membentuk adjacency dengan router tetangganya. Pada jaringan multi-akses, tetangga setiap router dapat lebih dari satu. Dalam situasi seperti ini, setiap router dalam jaringan perlu membentuk adjacency dengan semua router yang lain, dan ini tidak efisien. OSPF mengefisienkan adjacency ini dengan memperkenalkan konsep designated router dan designated router cadangan. Semua router hanya perlu adjacent dengan designated router tersebut, sehingga hanya designated router yang adjacent dengan semua router yang lain. Designated router cadangan akan mengambil alih fungsi designated router yang gagal berfungsi.

Langkah pertama dalam jaringan multi-akses adalah memilih designated router dan cadangannya. Pemilihan ini dimasukkan ke dalam protokol Hello, protokol dalam OSPF untuk mengetahui tetangga-tetangga router dalam setiap link. Setelah pemilihan, baru kemudian router-router membentuk adjacency dengan designated router dan cadangannya. Setiap terjadi perubahan jaringan, router mengirimkan pesan menggunakan protokol flooding ke designated router, dan designated router yang mengirimkan pesan tersebut ke router-router lain dalam link.

Designated router cadangan juga mendengarkan pesan-pesan yang dikirim ke designated router. Jika designated router gagal, cadangannya kemudian menjadi designated router yang baru serta dipilih designated router cadangan yang baru. Karena designated router yang baru telah adjacent dengan router-router lain, tidak perlu dilakukan lagi proses penyamaan basis data yang membutuhkan waktu yang lama tersebut.

Dalam jaringan yang besar tentu dibutuhkan basis data yang besar pula untuk menyimpan topologi jaringan. Ini mengarah kepada kebutuhan memori router yang lebih besar serta waktu perhitungan route yang lebih lama. Untuk mengantisipasi hal ini, OSPF menggunakan konsep area dan backbone. Jaringan dibagi menjadi beberapa area yang terhubung ke backbone. Setiap area dianggap sebagai jaringan tersendiri dan router-router di dalamnya hanya perlu memiliki peta topologi jaringan dalam area tersebut. Router-router yang terletak di perbatasan antar area hanya mengirimkan ringkasan dari link-link yang terdapat dalam area dan tidak mengirimkan topologi area satu ke area lain. Dengan demikian, perhitungan route menjadi lebih sederhana.

Kesederhanaan vs. Kemampuan

Kita sudah lihat sepintas bagaimana RIP dan OSPF bekerja. Setiap protokol routing memiliki kelebihan dan kekurangannya masing-masing. Protokol RIP sangat sederhana dan mudah diimplementasikan tetapi dapat menimbulkan routing loop. Protokol OSPF merupakan protokol yang lebih rumit dan lebih baik daripada RIP tetapi membutuhkan memori dan waktu CPU yang besar.

Di berbagai tempat juga terdapat yang menggunakan gabungan antara routing statik, RIP, RIP-v2, dan OSPF. Hasilnya di jaringan ini menunjukkan bahwa administrasi routing statik jauh lebih memakan waktu dibanding routing dinamik. Pengamatan pada protokol routing dinamik juga menunjukkan bahwa RIP menggunakan bandwidth yang lebih besar daripada OSPF dan semakin besar jaringan, bandwidth yang digunakan RIP bertambah lebih besar pula. Jadi, jika Anda sedang mendesain jaringan TCP/IP yang besar tentu OSPF merupakan pilihan protokol routing yang tepat

Sumber : http://dedenthea.wordpress.com/2007/02/07/apa-itu-router/

Read More..

Pengantar Router

Mengapa perlu router

Sebelum kita pelajari lebih jauh mengenai bagaimana mengkonfigurasi router cisco, kita perlu memahami lebih baik lagi mengenai beberapa aturan dasar routing. Juga tentunya kita harus memahami sistem penomoran IP,subnetting,netmasking dan saudara-saudaranya.

Contoh kasus:

Host X à 128.1.1.1 (ip Kelas B network id 128.1.x.x)

Host Y à 128.1.1.7 (IP kelas B network id 128.1.x.x)

Host Z à 128.2.2.1 (IP kelas B network id 128.2.x.x)

Pada kasus di atas, host X dan host Y dapat berkomunikasi langsung tetapi baik host X maupun Y tidak dapat berkomunikasi dengan host Z, karena mereka memiliki network Id yang berbeda. Bagaimana supaya Z dapat berkomunikasi dengan X dan Y ? gunakan router !

Contoh kasus menggunakan subnetting

Host P à 128.1.208.1 subnet mask 255.255.240.0

Host Q à 128.1.208.2 subnet mask 255.255.240.0

Host R à 128.1.80.3 subnet mask 255.255.240.0

Nah, ketika subnetting dipergunakan, maka dua host yang terhubung ke segmen jaringan yang sama dapat berkomunikasi hanya jika baik network id maupun subnetid-nya sesuai.Pada kasus di atas, P dan Q dapat berkomunikasi dengan langsung, R memiliki network id yang sama dengan P dan Q tetapi memiliki subnetidyang berbeda. Dengan demikian R tidak dapat berkomunikasi secara langsung dengan P dan Q. Bagaimana supaya R dapat berkomunikasi dengan P dan Q ? gunakan router !

Jadi fungsi router, secara mudah dapat dikatakan, menghubungkan dua buah jaringan yang berbeda, tepatnya mengarahkan rute yang terbaik untuk mencapai network yang diharapkan

Dalam implementasinya, router sering dipakai untuk menghubungkan jaringan antar lembaga atau perusahaan yang masing-masing telah memiliki jaringan dengan network id yang berbeda. Contoh lainnya yang saat ini populer adalah ketika perusahaan anda akan terhubung ke internet. Maka router akan berfungsi mengalirkan paket data dari perusahaan anda ke lembaga lain melalui internet, sudah barang tentu nomor jaringan anda akan bereda dengan perushaaan yang anda tuju.

Jika sekedar menghubungkan 2 buah jaringan, sebenarnya anda juga dapat menggunakan pc berbasis windows NT atau linux. Dengan memberikan 2 buah network card dan sedikit setting, sebenarnya anda telah membuat router praktis. Namun tentunya dengan segala keterbatasannya.

Di pasaran sangat beragam merek router, antara lain baynetworks, 3com dan cisco. Modul kursus kita kali ini akan membahas khusus cisco. Mengapa ? karena cisco merupakan router yang banyak dipakai dan banyak dijadikan standar bagi produk lainnya.

Lebih jauh tentang routing

Data-data dari device yang terhubung ke Internet dikirim dalam bentuk datagram, yaitu paket data yang didefinisikan oleh IP. Datagram memiliki alamat tujuan paket data; Internet Protocol memeriksa alamat ini untuk menyampaikan datagram dari device asal ke device tujuan. Jika alamat tujuan datagram tersebut terletak satu jaringan dengan device asal, datagram langsung disampaikan kepada device tujuan tersebut. Jika ternyata alamat tujuan datagram tidak terdapat di jaringan yang sama, datagram disampaikan kepada router yang paling tepat (the best available router).

IP Router (biasa disebut router saja) adalah device yang melakukan fungsi meneruskan datagram IP pada lapisan jaringan. Router memiliki lebih dari satu antamuka jaringan (network interface) dan dapat meneruskan datagram dari satu antarmuka ke antarmuka yang lain. Untuk setiap datagram yang diterima, router memeriksa apakah datagram tersebut memang ditujukan ke dirinya. Jika ternyata ditujukan kepada router tersebut, datagram disampaikan ke lapisan transport.

Jika datagram tidak ditujukan kepada router tersebut, yang akan diperiksa adalah forwarding table yang dimilikinya untuk memutuskan ke mana seharusnya datagram tersebut ditujukan. Forwarding table adalah tabel yang terdiri dari pasangan alamat IP (alamat host atau alamat jaringan), alamat router berikut, dan antarmuka tempat keluar datagram.

Jika tidak menemukan sebuah baris pun dalam forwarding table yang sesuai dengan alamat tujuan, router akan memberikan pesan kepada pengirim bahwa alamat yang dimaksud tidak dapat dicapai. Kejadian ini dapat dianalogikan dengan pesan “kembali ke pengirim” pada pos biasa. Sebuah router juga dapat memberitahu bahwa dirinya bukan router terbaik ke suatu tujuan, dan menyarankan penggunaan router lain. Dengan ketiga fungsi yang terdapat pada router ini, host-host di Internet dapat saling terhubung.

Statik dan Dinamik

Secara umum mekanisme koordinasi routing dapat dibagi menjadi dua: routing statik dan routing dinamik. Pada routing statik, entri-entri dalam forwarding table router diisi dan dihapus secara manual, sedangkan pada routing dinamik perubahan dilakukan melalui protokol routing. Routing statik adalah pengaturan routing paling sederhana yang dapat dilakukan pada jaringan komputer. Menggunakan routing statik murni dalam sebuah jaringan berarti mengisi setiap entri dalam forwarding table di setiap router yang berada di jaringan tersebut.

Penggunaan routing statik dalam sebuah jaringan yang kecil tentu bukanlah suatu masalah; hanya beberapa entri yang perlu diisikan pada forwarding table di setiap router. Namun Anda tentu dapat membayangkan bagaimana jika harus melengkapi forwarding table di setiap router yang jumlahnya tidak sedikit dalam jaringan yang besar. Apalagi jika Anda ditugaskan untuk mengisi entri-entri di seluruh router di Internet yang jumlahnya banyak sekali dan terus bertambah setiap hari. Tentu repot sekali!

Routing dinamik adalah cara yang digunakan untuk melepaskan kewajiban mengisi entri-entri forwarding table secara manual. Protokol routing mengatur router-router sehingga dapat berkomunikasi satu dengan yang lain dan saling memberikan informasi routing yang dapat mengubah isi forwarding table, tergantung keadaan jaringannya. Dengan cara ini, router-router mengetahui keadaan jaringan yang terakhir dan mampu meneruskan datagram ke arah yang benar.

Sumber : http://dedenthea.wordpress.com/2007/02/07/apa-itu-router/

Read More..

Free Adsense Ebook in Bahasa Indonesia

This ebook is dedicated to all of you, Indonesian Adsense Publisher. This is your "Formula Bisnis", If you are new players in adsense business then take an action to download by click links below, start read and implement the trick and tips as described inside.

This is one of the most completed "adsense ebook for dummies" and easy to understand in all aspects, especially because its came with our Bahasa Persatuan: Bahasa Indonesia.

Inside there you can learn from A to Z about adsense, What is adsense, How to earns, How to register, How to optimize, What is niche market, tips using images, and many more...

Ps: The material content on this ebook is NOT made by me, I just collecting articles, translate it, then with small experience with Visual Basic 6, I packed them as an ebook program like you will read latter...

Enjoy and have some fun with adsense!

Select from download links below:
file: adsense_indo.zip (673kb)

[Download link 1] @ indoupload
[Download link 2] @ rapidshare
[Download link 3] @ dewaupload

Source: http://adsense-journal.blogspot.com

Read More..

GSM

Global System for Mobile communications (GSM: originally from Groupe Spécial Mobile) is the most popular standard for mobile phones in the world. Its promoter, the GSM Association, estimates that 82% of the global mobile market uses the standard.^[1] GSM is used by over 2 billion people across more than 212 countries and territories.^[2][3] Its ubiquity makes international roaming very common between mobile phone operators, enabling subscribers to use their phones in many parts of the world. GSM differs from its predecessors in that both signalling and speech channels are digital call quality, and thus is considered a second generation (2G) mobile phone system. This has also meant that data communication was easy to build into the system.

The ubiquity of the GSM standard has been advantageous to both consumers (who benefit from the ability to roam and switch carriers without switching phones) and also to network operators (who can choose equipment from any of the many vendors implementing GSM^[4]). GSM also pioneered a low-cost alternative to voice calls, the Short message service (SMS, also called "text messaging"), which is now supported on other mobile standards as well.

Newer versions of the standard were backward-compatible with the original GSM phones. For example, Release '97 of the standard added packet data capabilities, by means of General Packet Radio Service (GPRS). Release '99 introduced higher speed data transmission using Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE).

History

In 1982, the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT) created the Groupe Spécial Mobile (GSM) to develop a standard for a mobile telephone system that could be used across Europe.^[5] In 1987, a memorandum of understanding was signed by 13 countries to develop a common cellular telephone system across Europe.^[6][7]

In 1989, GSM responsibility was transferred to the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) and phase I of the GSM specifications were published in 1990. The first GSM network was launched in 1991 by Radiolinja in Finland with joint technical infrastructure maintenance from Ericsson.^[8] By the end of 1993, over a million subscribers were using GSM phone networks being operated by 70 carriers across 48 countries.

Technical Details

GSM is a cellular network, which means that mobile phones connect to it by searching for cells in the immediate vicinity. GSM networks operate in four different frequency ranges. Most GSM networks operate in the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz bands. Some countries in the Americas (including Canada and the United States) use the 850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands because the 900 and 1800 MHz frequency bands were already allocated.

The rarer 400 and 450 MHz frequency bands are assigned in some countries, notably Scandinavia, where these frequencies were previously used for first-generation systems.

In the 900 MHz band the uplink frequency band is 890–915 MHz, and the downlink frequency band is 935–960 MHz. This 25 MHz bandwidth is subdivided into 124 carrier frequency channels, each spaced 200 kHz apart. Time division multiplexing is used to allow eight full-rate or sixteen half-rate speech channels per radio frequency channel. There are eight radio timeslots (giving eight burst periods) grouped into what is called a TDMA frame. Half rate channels use alternate frames in the same timeslot. The channel data rate is 270.833 kbit/s, and the frame duration is 4.615 ms.

The transmission power in the handset is limited to a maximum of 2 watts in GSM850/900 and 1 watt in GSM1800/1900.

GSM has used a variety of voice codecs to squeeze 3.1 kHz audio into between 5.6 and 13 kbit/s. Originally, two codecs, named after the types of data channel they were allocated, were used, called Half Rate (5.6 kbit/s) and Full Rate (13 kbit/s). These used a system based upon linear predictive coding (LPC). In addition to being efficient with bitrates, these codecs also made it easier to identify more important parts of the audio, allowing the air interface layer to prioritize and better protect these parts of the signal.

GSM was further enhanced in 1997^[10] with the Enhanced Full Rate (EFR) codec, a 12.2 kbit/s codec that uses a full rate channel. Finally, with the development of UMTS, EFR was refactored into a variable-rate codec called AMR-Narrowband, which is high quality and robust against interference when used on full rate channels, and less robust but still relatively high quality when used in good radio conditions on half-rate channels.

There are five different cell sizes in a GSM network—macro, micro, pico, femto and umbrella cells. The coverage area of each cell varies according to the implementation environment. Macro cells can be regarded as cells where the base station antenna is installed on a mast or a building above average roof top level. Micro cells are cells whose antenna height is under average roof top level; they are typically used in urban areas. Picocells are small cells whose coverage diameter is a few dozen meters; they are mainly used indoors. Femtocells are cells designed for use in residential or small business environments and connect to the service provider’s network via a broadband internet connection. Umbrella cells are used to cover shadowed regions of smaller cells and fill in gaps in coverage between those cells.

Cell horizontal radius varies depending on antenna height, antenna gain and propagation conditions from a couple of hundred meters to several tens of kilometers. The longest distance the GSM specification supports in practical use is 35 kilometres (22 mi). There are also several implementations of the concept of an extended cell, where the cell radius could be double or even more, depending on the antenna system, the type of terrain and the timing advance.

Indoor coverage is also supported by GSM and may be achieved by using an indoor picocell base station, or an indoor repeater with distributed indoor antennas fed through power splitters, to deliver the radio signals from an antenna outdoors to the separate indoor distributed antenna system. These are typically deployed when a lot of call capacity is needed indoors, for example in shopping centers or airports. However, this is not a prerequisite, since indoor coverage is also provided by in-building penetration of the radio signals from nearby cells.

The modulation used in GSM is Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK), a kind of continuous-phase frequency shift keying. In GMSK, the signal to be modulated onto the carrier is first smoothed with a Gaussian low-pass filter prior to being fed to a frequency modulator, which greatly reduces the interference to neighboring channels (adjacent channel interference).

Network Structure

The network behind the GSM system seen by the customer is large and complicated in order to provide all of the services which are required. It is divided into a number of sections and these are each covered in separate articles.

• the Base Station Subsystem (the base stations and their controllers).
• the Network and Switching Subsystem (the part of the network most similar to a fixed network). This is sometimes also just called the core network.
• the GPRS Core Network (the optional part which allows packet based Internet connections).
• all of the elements in the system combine to produce many GSM services such as voice calls and SMS.

Subscriber Identity Module

One of the key features of GSM is the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM), commonly known as a SIM card. The SIM is a detachable smart card containing the user's subscription information and phonebook. This allows the user to retain his or her information after switching handsets. Alternatively, the user can also change operators while retaining the handset simply by changing the SIM. Some operators will block this by allowing the phone to use only a single SIM, or only a SIM issued by them; this practice is known as SIM locking, and is illegal in some countries.

In Australia, Canada, Europe and the United States many operators lock the mobiles they sell. This is done because the price of the mobile phone is typically subsidised with revenue from subscriptions, and operators want to try to avoid subsidising competitor's mobiles. A subscriber can usually contact the provider to remove the lock for a fee, utilize private services to remove the lock, or make use of ample software and websites available on the Internet to unlock the handset themselves. While most web sites offer the unlocking for a fee, some do it for free. The locking applies to the handset, identified by its International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) number, not to the account (which is identified by the SIM card). It is always possible to switch to another (non-locked) handset if such a handset is available.

Some providers will unlock the phone for free if the customer has held an account for a certain time period. Third party unlocking services exist that are often quicker and lower cost than that of the operator. In most countries, removing the lock is legal. United States-based T-Mobile provides free unlocking services to their customers after 3 months of subscription.^[11]

In some countries such as Belgium, Costa Rica, India, Indonesia, Pakistan, and Malaysia, all phones are sold unlocked. However, in Belgium, it is unlawful for operators there to offer any form of subsidy on the phone's price. This was also the case in Finland until April 1, 2006, when selling subsidized combinations of handsets and accounts became legal, though operators have to unlock phones free of charge after a certain period (at most 24 months).

GSM security

GSM was designed with a moderate level of security. The system was designed to authenticate the subscriber using a pre-shared key and challenge-response. Communications between the subscriber and the base station can be encrypted. The development of UMTS introduces an optional USIM, that uses a longer authentication key to give greater security, as well as mutually authenticating the network and the user - whereas GSM only authenticated the user to the network (and not vice versa). The security model therefore offers confidentiality and authentication, but limited authorization capabilities, and no non-repudiation.

GSM uses several cryptographic algorithms for security. The A5/1 and A5/2 stream ciphers are used for ensuring over-the-air voice privacy. A5/1 was developed first and is a stronger algorithm used within Europe and the United States; A5/2 is weaker and used in other countries. A large security advantage of GSM over earlier systems is that the cryptographic key stored on the SIM card is never sent over the wireless interface. Serious weaknesses have been found in both algorithms, however, and it is possible to break A5/2 in real-time in a ciphertext-only attack. The system supports multiple algorithms so operators may replace that cipher with a stronger one.

Read More..

IP Command Lines

DOS / Windows IP Command Lines

Display Connection Configuration: ipconfig /all

Display DNS Cache Info Configuration: ipconfig /displaydns

Clear DNS Cache: ipconfig /flushdns

Release All IP Address Connections: ipconfig /release

Renew All IP Address Connections: ipconfig /renew

Re-Register the DNS connections: ipconfig /registerdns

Change/Modify DHCP Class ID: ipconfig /setclassid

Network Connections: control netconnections

Network Setup Wizard: netsetup.cpl

Test Connectivity: ping www.whatismyip.com

Trace IP address Route: tracert

Displays the TCP/IP protocol sessions: netstat

Display Local Route: route

Display Resolved MAC Addresses: arp

Display Name of Computer Currently on: hostname

Display DHCP Class Information: ipconfig /showclassid

Linux IP Command Lines

Note: You MUST be at the ROOT user to make/save any changes. Linux users, your distribution will determine the location of your network config file which will need to be updated and saved in order for the changes to remain in effect after rebooting. Network cards are referred to as eth0, eth1, eth2, etc based on their position on the PCI bus.

Display Current Config for all NIC's: ifconfig

Display Current Config for eth0: ifconfig eth0

Assign IP: ifconfig eth0 192.168.1.2

Assign IP/Subnet: ifconfig eth0 192.168.1.2 netmask 255.255.255.0

Assign Default Gateway: route add default gw 192.168.1.1

Assign multiple IP's: ifconfig eth0:0 192.168.1.2

Assign second IP: ifconfig eth0:1 192.168.1.3

Disable network card: ifconfig eth0 down

Enable network card: ifconfig eth0 up

View current routing table: route "or" route -n

View arp cache: arp "or" arp -n

Ping: ping -c 3 192.168.1.1

Trace Route: traceroute www.whatismyip.com

Trace Path: tracepath www.whatismyip.com

DNS Test: host www.whatismyip.com

Advanced DNS Test: dig www.whatismyip.com

Reverse Lookup: host 66.11.119.69

Advanced Reverse Lookup: dig -x 66.11.119.69

UNIX IP Command Lines

Note: You MUST be at the ROOT user to make/save any changes. You will need to save your changes in the /etc/rc.conf file. Network cards are referred to as dc0, dc1, dc2, etc based on their position on the PCI bus.

Display Current Config for all NIC's: ifconfig

Display Current Config for dc0: ifconfig dc0

Assign IP/Subnet: ifconfig dc0 inet 192.168.1.2 netmask 255.255.255.0

Assign Gateway: route delete default && route add default 192.168.1.1

Assign multiple IP's: ifconfig dc0:0 192.168.1.2

Assign second IP: ifconfig dc0:1 192.168.1.3

Disable network card: ifconfig dc0 down

Enable network card: ifconfig dc0 up

Source: http://www.whatismyip.com

Read More..